THE ASHERAH PROBLEM:
A COMMON SENSE APPROACH
This paper will introduce the reader to the “Asherah problem”. It will then proceed to summarize what the scholars are saying about it. After that I shall attempt to offer what I call the “common sense” approach to the issue. I do not intend here to over intellectualize the problem nor pretend to out scholar the scholars. The reader of this paper need not have a PhD in biblical studies nor have mastered the Hebrew language in order to digest the following work. My aim here to is offer a paper that can be used as a reference guide to the issue by anyone interested in biblical studies and continue the “common sense” theme of my own writings. With this said, let us begin.
The Asherah Problem
Our problem is quite simple. It revolves around the use of the term Asherah in the Hebrew Bible. Here are a few examples.
2 Kings 23:4
The King commanded the high priest Hilkiah , the priests of the second order, and the guardians of the threshold, to bring out of the temple of the Lord all the vessels made for Baal, for Asherah, [capital A] and for all the host of heaven; he burned them outside Jerusalem in the fields of the Kidron, and carried their ashes to Bethel.[1]
As you can see from this verse, Asherah (Capital A) appears to be a deity, generally assumed to be a Goddess.
2 Kings 23:15
Moreover, the altar at Bethel, the high place erected by Jeroboam son of Nebat, who caused Israel to sin—he pulled down that altar along with the high place. He burned the high place, crushing it to dust; he also burned the asherah.[2] [small a]
From this passage asherah (small a) appears to be some sort of object related to worship or cultic activities.
Jeremiah 17:2
While their children remember their altars and their asherim [small a] beside every green tree, and on the high hills.
Once again, “asherim” appears to be some sort of object but in the plural.
Deuteronomy 16:21
You shall not plant any tree as an asherah [small a] beside the altar that you make for the Lord your God.
In this passage it is rather clear that the asherah is a tree of some sort. Now let us look at one final verse that adds further to the confusion.
2 Chronicles 19:3
Nevertheless, some good is found in you, for you destroyed the asheroth [small a] out of the land, and have set your heart to seek God.
From this verse the definition of “asheroth” is presupposed by the writer. Not only does it appear to be a plural form of asherah, it is different from the plural form used in Jeremiah. All we can tell from this verse is that the asheroth were removed, we have no idea what it or they are.
Now that’s our problem in a nutshell. But it is still more complex than this. Without doubt the common reader by cross referencing bible verses could come to some sort of conclusion to our problem, but wait. The term “asherah” occurs forty times in nine of the O.T. books. Nine times without a definite article or pronominal suffix. Four times in singular form, three times in the masculine plural, once in the feminine plural, and once with a proposition (l) attached. All of the remaining verses have the pronominal suffix or definite article which necessitates definiteness.[3]
What all this means is that of all the verses containing the term “asherah” in the O.T. the meaning is still not entirely clear. Therefore at this point, let us look at the history of the problem.[4]
The 2nd century B.C.E. Greek version of the bible, also known as the LXX or Septuagint, rendered the term “asherah” as “grove”. Later on the King James Version (KJV) of 1611 C.E. would follow suit. The only exceptions are Isaiah 17:8; 27:9 and Chronicles 15:16; 24:18 where the LXX has “trees”. St. Jerome’s 5th century C.E. version of the bible called the “Vulgate” also translated “asherah” as “grove in all cases except Judges 6:25, 26, 30, where it has “wood”. The Targums or Aramaic versions of the bible done in the early centuries C.E. in Babylon and Palestine, do no more than transliterate the word “asherah”. Finally the Peshitta which is a Christian version in Syriac (a dialect of Aramaic), from the 4th century C.E. uses a variety of terms such as “object of reverence”, “Fearful thing” (19 times), “trees” (twice), “molten images” (twice), “images” (twice), “idols” (twice), “high places” (3 times), “statue” (once) and three times the meaning is uncertain. In Judges 3:7 it uses, “astarte”. [5]
According to the Mishna, ( Hebrew word meaning “instruction”, a part of the Talmud), the asherim were living trees that were worshiped. Medieval Jewish commentators such as Kimhi write, “Every tree which is worshiped and is planted in honor of a deity that they worship idolatrously is called Asherah.” In 1685 Cambridge Scholar John Spencer attempted to understand the Hebrew Bible from the standpoint of comparative religion. Although his resources were limited he detected several meanings. Often he admitted that “asherah” meant “grove” but it could also denote an image of a grove, individual tree, a temple, or the goddess Astarte. Upon entering the 19th century and early part of the 20th when critical approaches to the bible were being accepted we can detect three main views coming to the fore. 1. Asherah was equated with the goddess Astarte or her symbol, 2. Asherah was a cult object (wooden pole, image, tree or phallic symbol) but not the name of a deity[6] and 3. Asherah denotes both a goddess and a cult object symbolizing her, but not equated with Astarte. This last view is the one most widely accepted today.[7] But hang on to your hats, there’s more to come.
In 1929 excavations began at the ancient city of Ras Shamra on the Northern coast of Syria. What was found has “revolutionized the study of Canaanite mythology and its bearing upon biblical scholarship”.[8] Texts, written in the local West Semitic script language, known as Ugaritic, as well as in several other scripts and languages such as Akkadian, Egyptian, Hittite and Hurrian were found dating from the end of the late bronze age (1400-1190 B.C.E.).The myths and legends of the texts are in poetic form (as is much of the Hebrew bible), while the letters, administrative documents and ritual instructions are in prose. These myths and legends provide us the principle points of comparison with the Hebrew Bible in both form and content. The poetry is similar to the biblical Hebrew for both are characterized by multilevel parallelism and share rhetorical and stylistic devices as well as expressions. As far as content goes, the texts provide many details of Canaanite religion, to or about which the Hebrew Bible contains reactions or reflections.[9]
The texts follow three main cycles: 1. The deeds and conflicts and final ascendancy of the god Baal who lives at Mt. Zafon, over his enemies. Other mythic figures with biblical associations are the sun god El (sometimes represented by a bull) and his consort Ashtoreth [Athirat] or Asherah, their son Hadad, Anath, Yam-Nahar, Moth and others, 2. The story of a King Keret of Hubut and 3. The tale of Haquhat, son of a righteous King Daniel.[10]
Until the discovery of the Ugaritic texts and ever afterwards it was common for scholars to deny the very existence of the goddess Asherah, whether in or outside the bible, and many of those who did accept her existence wrongly equated her with Astarte, but now no one can deny that there was a Canaanite goddess Asherah, independent of Astarte. It is even generally accepted that this same goddess appears a number of times in the OT.[11]
According to P.Matthiae, the earliest references to the goddess Asherah appear in the Elba Texts (ca. 2350 B.C.E.) where she is a “lesser but well-attested” deity. In the 2nd millennium B.C.E. we also find the goddess (called Asratum) in cuneiform texts from the period of the first dynasty of Babylon ( 1830-1531 B.C.E.) where she is the consort of Amurru. Although these texts are in Akkadian instead of Semitic language they are of interest, for “it is likely that her cult was brought to Mesopotamia by the Amorites.” She is called “the lady of the steppe”, the “bride of the king of heaven” the “mistress of sexual vigor and rejoicing” and her name appears in several old god lists.[12]
Two more texts in Akkadian cuneiform are worth mentioning. One is from Taanach, near Megiddo in northern Palestine which dates from the 15th century B.C.E. and reads “Further, and if there is a wizard of Asherah, let him tell our fortunes and let me hear quickly and the sign and interpretation send to me”. A second item is from the el-Amarna letters that date from the first half of the 14th century B.C.E. and calls the king Amurru a “servant of Asherah”. Both of these texts were discovered before the Ugaritic texts but many scholars at that time refused to accept that they testified to the existence of the goddess Asherah.[13]
Now besides all this, there is more extrabiblical evidence for our problem. Asherah has been found at several other sites, namely Khirbet el-Qom, Kuntillet Arjud, Lachish, Pella, Ekron , Arslan Tash and Taanach which was mentioned above. Also an artifact called the “Jerusalem pomegranate” has factored in to our issue.[14]
Now since I can not cover every one of these sites in this paper, I am now going to mention and explain the two most controversial of the above. At Khirbet el- Qom a group of tombs were found by William B. Denver. One of the inscriptions there reads:
Blessed be Uriyahu by Yahweh and by his [A]asherah; from his enemies he saved him.” [15]
The issue at hand is whether “Asherah” (Capital A or small a), refers to the Goddess or to an object. If it refers to the Goddess, then Yahweh (God of the Hebrews), would have had a wife or a female consort of some type in the mind of the writer.
Now the scholars bounce this issue around and around among themselves. Andre Lamaire a famous epigraphist (someone who studies ancient inscriptions)[16], has supplied the translation that has set off all the argument.[17]
Now before going more into the arguments, lets look at the last find we shall discuss. Kuntillet Ajrud. In 1975-76, Z. Meshel excavated this 9th-8th century B.C.E. site in the eastern Sinai.[18] This site does not have a biblical name “because nobody knows how to connect it with the bible.” The name is Arabic. The site is on the boarder between the southern Negeb and the Sinai peninsula. It is a “one –period site” (meaning that it’s not contaminated with different strata or layers from other times). Many inscriptions were found there with the majority being in Hebrew. The settlement lies near the road between Gaza and Eilat, and served as both a fortress and rest stop for caravans. Given the desolate area and rough terrain, it is understandable that many of the inscriptions are “heart felt prayers of thanksgiving”.[19]
Now lets take a look at the inscriptions.
- Inscription 1 on Pithos[20] A reads: Thus says …: Say to Yehalle, Yo’asa and …I bless you to/before Yahweh of Samaria and his [A]asherah.
- Inscription 2 on Pithos B reads: Thus says Amaryau: Say to my Lord: Is it well with you? I bless you to/before Yahweh of Teman and his [A}asherah. May He bless and keep you and be with my lord.
- Inscription 3 on Pithos B reads: By/Before Yahweh of Teman and his [A]asherah…Whatever he shall request of anyone, may he grant it…and may Yahweh give him according to his intention.[21]
The inscription [Pithos A] expresses a religious sentiment or blessing. It says “ I bless you by” and we have the tetragrammaton [YHVH], the sacred personal name of the God of Israel. Followed by the name of a city, Shomeron [Samaria] the capital of the northern Kingdom, Israel. Following this word is the term at the center of the controversy.[22]
Ok, with most of the problem of our discussion put forth, let us take a look at what a few scholars have to say about our issue. Then we can carry on with some more information and then proceed on to the “common sense approach.”
According to Mark Smith of Yale University, while it is unclear whether asherah in these inscriptions (Khirbet el- Qom, Kuntillet ajrud) refer to the goddess Asherah or to her cult symbol, the asherah, the inscriptions unambiguously place Yahweh in a positive context with what the biblical data present as foreign.[23] The biblical view seems to be supported by the Ugaritic texts, which describe Asherah as a goddess, mother of the Gods and spouse of El, the older judge, patriarch and father of the pantheon. Asherah as a nurturing mother goddess was represented by the religious symbol, the asherah which was in Israel a wooden pole, or perhaps a tree representing the “tree of life”. The “tree of life” motif in the ancient Near East goes back to the 3rd millennium. In Israel it had become the goddess’ symbol by the 13th century (B.C.E.).[24]
These Hebrew inscriptions (Khirbet el- Qom, Kuntillet ajrud), suggest the possibility that Asherah, or at least her symbol, the asherah was acceptable in at least some quarters of pre-exilic[25] Israel. In reading the Deuteronomistic History (Deuteronomy, Judges, Joshua, 1 and 2 Samuel, 1 and 2 Kings) an indication that asherah was observed as early as the period of the Judges ( 1200-1000 B.C.E.) and as late as a few decades before the fall of the southern kingdom of Judah (587/586 B.C.E.) is displayed. It was acceptable in both kingdoms (Northern and Southern), and inside and outside the royal cults of Samaria and Jerusalem. An association between the Canaanite deities Asherah and Baal was perceived by the Deuteronomistic school[26] as having existed in the period of the Judges and therefore eventually by the time of the monarchy an association must have been made between Asherah and Yahweh. “It would appear from the inscriptions and the biblical evidence that the asherah was not simply a Canaanite import; it appears to have been perfectly at home in ancient Israel in the pre-exilic period.”[27]
For John Day of Oxford University: three views have been suggested as possibilities, a cella or chapel, the Goddess herself, or a cultic object. The first meaning though attested in other Semitic languages, in not found elsewhere in Hebrew and should therefore be rejected. The second view, that it is simply the goddess Asherah, should also be rejected, for in biblical Hebrew (unlike some other Semitic languages) personal names are unknown with a pronominal suffix. Therefore the most probable view is the third, namely that Asherah denotes the name of a cultic object. This meaning is well attested in the O.T. (Exod 34:13; Deut 7:5; 12:3 16:21; Judg 6:26, 28, 30; 1 Kgs 14:15, 23 etc.). Although there is some dispute about precisely what kind of cult object the asherah was the evidence is strong that it was a wooden pole symbolizing the goddess Asherah. “We can understand how the Asherah can be invoked as a source of blessing in the Kuntillet Ajrud inscriptions along side Yahweh, since it symbolized the goddess”. It therefore seems that these texts reflect a religious syncretism[28] in which Asherah was closely related to Yahweh, presumably as his consort. That this should be so, ought not to surprise us when we recall allusions such as Deut 16:21-22.[29] The presence of the symbol of the goddess Asherah next to Yahweh’s alter most naturally suggests that she was regarded in syncretistic circles as his consort. The Kuntillet Ajrud inscriptions date from about 800 B.C.E. and thus give us a direct insight into the nature of the popular religion condemned by Israel’s pre-exilic prophets.[30]
Now at this point, let us summarize what we have discussed before looking at our last bit of information that pertains to the Asherah Problem. I have shown you the issue in simple form (bible verses), and displayed the grammatical tensions in the texts. Translation history and Jewish commentaries as well as scholarly history has been displayed. We have covered the major archaeological finds that bear on our problem and you have heard two famous scholars opinions. With this in mind, let us see one final part of the puzzle that may bear heavily on your opinion.
This is the drawing that lies under the inscription on Pithos A at Kuntillet Ajrud.
As you can see the figures appear to be male and female with some sort of adjoining figure in the rear playing a lyre. Let us now hear what the scholars have to say about this.
According to M. Gilula, the figures drawn beneath the inscription, despite some superficial resemblance, cannot be interpreted as Bes, an Egyptian dwarf-god well known in the ancient Near east from the Middle Kingdom down to Hellenistic (Greek) times. The principle reason is that these figures are bovine (cow like) and not leonine (lion like) for the Egyptian Bes is invariably leonine. Therefore the two figures standing hand in hand are ( as per Gilula’s reading of the inscription), Yahweh and Asherah (Capital A).[31]
For J.A. Emerton, it is reasonable to argue that it represents Yahweh and Asherah although there is the difficulty that the drawing includes three figures and not two. However if it does not, it might be argued that the drawing includes a male and a female deity, and that they may represent the two. If the writer of the inscription had intended to refer to “Yahweh and Asherah”, in the sense of Yahweh and his consort Asherah, it would have been possible to do so in a way that corresponds with the Old Testament Hebrew idiom. The writer could have attached the pronominal suffix to a noun denoting the relationship. Therefore it is likely that the drawings come from a different hand than the inscriptions. Also in interpreting inscriptions in a form of Hebrew that appears to be essentially the same language as that of the O.T., one should be guided by grammatical usage of the Hebrew bible. Finally, if the author of the inscription had intended to refer to Yahweh and his consort Asherah the wording in Biblical Hebrew would be clear.[32]
At this point you have seen a general overview of the “Asherah problem” without all the in-dept scholarly gobbledygook. The argument still rages as new ways of seeing the evidence is put forth and the Hebrew professionals and archaeologists badger back and forth over minute increments of our issue. Once again, this is not to say that scholarly research is not needed nor is it not important to the fields of theology or archaeology. What my intention is, as I told you in the beginning of this paper, is to supply you a “common sense” approach and allow you to draw your own conclusions. So since I am not capable nor are you willing to read a long and drawn out revue of textual studies into ancient Semitic languages and their grammatical structures, let us proceed with what I commonly call in my other works—The Madison Moment.
Allow me to do for you, what I suggested might be done in the beginning of this paper. Let us cross reference the Hebrew scriptures that contain the term Asherah, Asherim or Asheroth. I have broken this down for you in a simple to read graph that will allow you to continue the research into this subject on your own.
The lines down the left side of the chart will tell you what action was taken towards the Asherah, Asherim or Asheroth, whether the term is unknown or if it surely refers to something else (Goddess, tree, etc,). Following to the right the verses containing the references are listed. I did not use the entire chapters in my decisions where to list the term. I thought it best to use the particular verse itself instead of adding my own commentary. In other words, the verses will speak for themselves and you can decide based on your own reading of the contexts. It is always best to read the scriptures for yourself first and then use other’s opinions or commentaries.
|
Use of Term |
Action Taken |
Number of times |
Verses |
|
Tree |
Planted |
1 |
Deut. 16:21 |
|
Goddess/es |
Served |
4 |
Judg. 3:7; 1 Kgs. 18:19; 2 Kgs. 23:4; 2 Chron. 24:18 |
|
Unknown |
none |
3 |
Isaiah, 27:9, Jeremiah 17:2, Micah 5:14 |
|
Object |
Made/Carved/Built |
9 |
Isa. 17:8, 1 Kgs. 14:15; 14:23; 15:13; 16:33, 2Kgs. 17:16; 21:7, 2Chron. 15:16; 34:4 |
|
Object |
Set/Erected |
2 |
2Kgs. 17:10, 2Chron. 33:19 |
|
Object |
Was Standing |
2 |
2 Kgs. 13:6, 2 Chron. 17:6 |
|
Object |
Broken/Beat into Powder |
2 |
2 Chron.34:4; 34:7 |
|
Object |
Women weaving for |
1 |
2 Kgs. 23:7 |
|
Object |
Cut Down |
12 |
Ex. 34:13,Judg. 6:25; 6:28; 6:30; Deut. 7:5; 12:3, 1Kgs. 15:13; 2Kgs. 18:4l; 23:14, 2 Chron. 14:3; 15:16; 31:1 |
|
Object |
Removed |
2 |
2 Chron 17:6; 19:3 |
|
Object |
Burned |
4 |
Deut. 12:3, 1Kgs. 15:13, 2 Kgs. 23:6; 23:15 |
As you can see from our chart, Asherah (Asherim, Asheroth), is referred to as an object the vast majority of times (34 of 42) in the O.T. Most of the references are to it being “made/carved” and “cut down”, while it is “set/erected”, “removed”, “broken/ground into powder” or “was standing” twice. It was Burned 4 times.
As Day has told us, the majority opinion is such ; Asherah denotes both a goddess and a cult object (wooden pole, image, tree or phallic symbol) symbolizing her, but not equated with Astarte. This last view is the one most widely accepted today.[33]
With what we know of the Ugaritic Texts, lets look at five verses in Jeremiah that may shed some more light on our problem.
7:18
The children gather wood, the fathers kindle fire, and the women knead dough, to make cakes for the queen of heaven; and they pour out drink offerings to other gods, to provoke me to anger.
44:17
Instead, we will do everything that we have vowed, make offerings to the queen of heaven and pour out libations to her, just as we and our ancestors, our kings and our officials, used to do in the towns of Judah and in the streets of Jerusalem. We used to have plenty of food, and prospered, and saw no misfortune.
44:18
But from the time we stopped making offerings to the queen of heaven and pouring out libations to her, we have lacked everything and have perished by the sword and by famine."
44:19
And the women said, "Indeed we will go on making offerings to the queen of heaven and pouring out libations to her; do you think that we made cakes for her, marked with her image, and poured out libations to her without our husbands' being involved?"
44:25
Thus says the Lord of hosts, the God of Israel: You and your wives have accomplished in deeds what you declared in words, saying, "We are determined to perform the vows that we have made, to make offerings to the queen of heaven and to pour out libations to her.' By all means, keep your vows and make your libations!
These verses in the book of Jeremiah the Prophet are the only places in the O.T. where the term “Queen of Heaven” appears. The book covers the period just before the Babylonian exile and the period right after (approx. 620-580 B.C.E.)[34] As we have learned the Ugaritic texts date from 1400-1190 B.C.E. or the end of the late bronze age.[35] If this is so then my question would be, are those of the Southern Kingdom still worshiping the Canaanite Goddess after what appears to be a period of at least 500 years and the loss of the Northern Kingdom? A Goddess that apparently they incorporated into their own traditions after acquiring the holy land. It seems that from what our verses in Jeremiah say they are, but why does the rest of the biblical literature not reflect this? Why, when the term “asherah” is used by a prophet (see chart) it refers to an object or the meaning is unknown. If it was a foreign deity that the prophets were referring to why would they not make the meaning clear? And why in all four verses where a prophet uses the term, he uses it in the plural (asherim). Obviously he is not referring to a deity per say, but to an object that could perhaps represent a deity to someone else but not to him. Therefore with this in mind lets examine the rest of our evidence.
If the inscriptions at Kuntillet Ajrud are from the 8th-9th century B.C.E.[36] as they have been dated, then according to some scholars,[37] Asherah was certainly worshiped as a Goddess by the Israelites during that time period approx 2 to 3 hundred years before the Babylonian Exile. But once again, if this is the case, why are the inscriptions unclear?
It seems to me that as Emerton says, if the author of the inscription had intended to refer to Yahweh and his consort Asherah the wording in Biblical Hebrew would be clear.[38] What I would contend here is that the evidence of Asherah being worshiped as a deity by the vast majority of Israelites is faulty. I would propose that some sort of symbol, most likely a wooden pole (perhaps adorned) was being used in some or perhaps many cultic circles by either syncretists or pseudo-mystics in order to create more elaborate cultic settings to rival or resemble the temple.[39] I seriously doubt that the Deuteronomistic School would have tried to hide through redactions an idolatry that could have been used to support their own Pro-Gola stance as the elite of the religious in post-exilic Judah. If Asherah were being thought of by the majority of Israelites as a Goddess then the redactors would have played it to the hilt. It is more likely that Jeremiah is upset with the Jerusalem orthodoxy for not clamping down more on these types of popular devotions as Josiah did previously, and not that the majority of the people followed them. In other words, I think the prophets as well as the totality of biblical literature is saying, “Get rid of the sacred poles”.
Now as for Asherah being a tree. This must be rejected, once again on common sense grounds. The climate of Palestine is subtropical and has not changed much since biblical times. The rainfall decreases from North to South and from West to East. It has only two seasons—the dry season in summer (May through September) when there is usually no rain and the wet season (mid October through March), with most of the rain occurring between November and February. Also a sufficient amount of dew is recorded yearly.[40] With this being the case, I find it hard to believe that the Asherah was a living tree, for one simple reason, living trees can not be burned until they are fully dried out, nor are they “made”, “broken” or “beat into powder” generally. To dry out a living tree for burning takes time and from our scripture verses it appears that time was of the essence in getting rid of the “fearful things”.[41]
In closing it would appear that I agree with the majority that, Asherah denotes both a goddess and a cultic object (wooden pole) symbolizing her, but wait, I have something else to say. I believe that I have presented my case that the asherah/asherim, according to the biblical writers, is a cultic object and not a deity, but that does not mean that for some she was not a goddess. I am not saying that. Once again it is surely possible that some would have seen her as such in popular devotions, but I doubt that the majority shared this opinion. I think at best she was a minor deity venerated but not worshiped. Therefore since I hold the majority opinion let it be known that I hold it far more to the “cultic object” side than to the “deity” side. Since the plural of asherah (Asherim) is often used in the scriptures, and especially by the prophets, I think it should be investigated by those with more talent than I, whether my premise that they were used to symbolize the pillars in the temple is viable. This seems to me to be the most “common sense” approach to our issue.
Thank You
James Madison
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Day, John. Asherah In The Hebrew Bible And Northwest Semitic Literature. Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. 3 Issue 105, 1986.
Emerton, J.A. “Yahweh And His Asherah”: The Goddess Or Her Symbol? Vetus Testamentum XLIX, 3, Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden: 1999.
Freedman, David Noel. Yahweh Of Samaria And His Asherah. Biblical Archaeologist, December, 1987.
Keel, Othmar and Christoph Uehlinger. Gods, Goddesses, And Images Of God In Ancient Israel. Trans. Thomas H.Trapp. Minneapolis Fortress Press: 1998
King, Phillip J and Lawrence E. Stager. Life in biblical Israel. Westminster John Knox Press, London: 2001,
Margalit, Baruch. The Meaning And Significance Of Asherah. Vestus Testamentum 40.03, ATLA Serials, 2004
Newberger, Elana. Asherah: The Israelite Goddess And The Cultic Object. Theta Alpha Kappa. Vol. 29, No. 1 Spring 2005
New Revised Standard Version. The Cambridge Annotated Study Bible. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge: 1993.
Petty, Richard J. Asherah: Goddess of Israel. Peter Lang Publishing, N.Y.: 1990
Smith, Mark S. God Male And Female In The Old Testament: Yahweh And His “Asherah”. Theological Studies, Number 48. 1987.
The Encyclopedia Of The Jewish Religion. Ed. R.J.Zwi Werblowsky and Geoffrey Wegoder, Holt, Rinehart and Winston: 1966.
BIBLIOGRAPHY CONTINUED
The HarperCollins Dictionary of Religion. Ed. Johnathan Z. Smith. HarperCollins Publishers, San Francisco: 1995.
[1] New Revised Standard Version. The Cambridge Annotated Study Bible. All Bible quotations in this paper will come from this version.
[2] The NRSV has “sacred pole” with a footnote reading that asherah is the actual word used in the Hebrew texts. I have used the actual reading in order to present the argument. The reading “sacred pole” presupposes that this particular argument we are discussing is already solved. It also lists the term Asherah with a capital A. I shall correct this issue throughout the rest of the paper without mention.
[3] Petty, Richard J. Asherah: Goddess of Israel. Peter Lang Publishing, N.Y.: 1990 Pg.7 : Taken from Elana Newberger’s article, Asherah: The Israelite Goddess And The Cultic Object. Theta Alpha Kappa. Vol. 29, No. 1 Spring 2005 pg. 50
[4] Remember that the Old Testament is written in Hebrew and the problem in question dates from hundreds of years before and up to the Babylonian exile (Approx. 587 B.C).
[5] Day, John. Asherah In The Hebrew Bible And Northwest Semitic Literature. Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. 3 Issue 105, 1986. Pg. 397. Day does not include the dates of the bible versions nor complete information on what language they are done in. I supplied them for the reader. They are available in the “Translations of the Bible” section by Bruce Metzger in the front of the NRSV. The Cambridge Annotated Study Bible. 1993.
[6] W. Robert Smith was a “noteworthy defender of this view, claiming that Asherah always denoted a wooden pole.” Day. Pg. 398
[7] Day, Pg. 398
[8] The Encyclopedia Of The Jewish Religion. Ed. R.J.Zwi Werblowsky and Geoffrey Wegoder, Holt, Rinehart and Winston: 1966. pg.393
[9] The HarperCollins Dictionary of Religion. Ed. Johnathan Z. Smith. HarperCollins Publishers, San Francisco: 1995. Pg.1105.
[10] The Encyclopedia Of The Jewish Religion. Ed. R.J.Zwi Werblowsky and Geoffrey Wegoder, Holt, Rinehart and Winston: 1966. pg.393
[11] Day, pg. 385
[12] Day, Pg. 386
[13] Day, Pg. 386
[14]Newberger, Elana. Asherah: The Israelite Goddess And The Cultic Object. Theta Alpha Kappa. Vol. 29, No. 1 Spring 2005 pg. 51
[15] Newberger, Pg.51
[16] Lamaire is considered to be one of the top in this field. He is quoted in all of the research done for this paper.
[17] Newberger, Pg.51
[18] Smith, Mark S. God Male And Female In The Old Testament: Yahweh And His “Asherah”. Theological Studies, Number 48. 1987. Pg. 333
[19] Freedman, David Noel. Yahweh Of Samaria And His Asherah. Biblical Archaeologist, December, 1987. Pg. 241.
[20] Pithos are pottery.
[21] Keel, Othmar and Christoph Uehlinger. Gods, Goddesses, And Images Of God In Ancient Israel. Trans. Thomas H.Trapp. Minneapolis Fortress Press: 1998. Pgs. 225-26. Taken from Elana Newberger’s article, Asherah: The Israelite Goddess And The Cultic Object. Theta Alpha Kappa. Vol. 29, No. 1 Spring 2005 pg. 52
[22] Freedman Pg. 246.
[23] or “evil in the eyes of the Lord” 1 Kings 16:30,33. Smith, Pg. 334
[24] Smith, Pg. 334
[25] Before the Babylonian exile, approx. 587 B.C.E.
[26] The Deuteronomistic school is a theory that a particular group of elite that returned from the Babylonian exile formed a school that edited or redacted the Deuteronomistic history to suit their own purposes. See my previous work, The Theological And Political Case For Pro-Gola Redactions in Jeremiah’s Oracles Against the Nations: The Expansionist Story. 2005
[27] Smith, Pg. 335-36
[28] Syncretism means to combine or blend different religious traditions.
[29] Deuteronomy 16:21-22, “You shall not plant any wooden thing as an Asherah beside the altar of the Lord your God which you shall make. And you shall not set up a pillar, which the Lord your god hates.”
[30] Day, Pg. 392
[31] Margalit, Baruch. The Meaning And Significance Of Asherah. Vestus Testamentum 40.03, ATLA Serials, 2004: Pg. 275. Margalit summarizes Gilula’s argument.
[32] Emerton, J.A. “Yahweh And His Asherah”: The Goddess Or Her Symbol? Vetus Testamentum XLIX, 3, Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden: 1999. Pgs. 317,320,334,335.
[33] Day, Pg. 398
[34] Once again, for more information see my previous work: The Theological And Political Case For Pro-Gola Redactions in Jeremiah’s Oracles Against the Nations: The Expansionist Story. 2005
[35] The HarperCollins Dictionary of Religion. Ed. Johnathan Z. Smith. HarperCollins Publishers, San Francisco: 1995. Pg.1105.
[36] Smith, Mark S. God Male And Female In The Old Testament: Yahweh And His “Asherah”. Theological Studies, Number 48. 1987. Pg. 333
[37] Smith, Pg. 335-36
[38] Emerton, J.A. “Yahweh And His Asherah”: The Goddess Or Her Symbol? Vetus Testamentum XLIX, 3, Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden: 1999. Pgs. 317,320,334,335.
[39] I would further speculate that these wooden poles were used to symbolize or resemble the pillars at the entrance of the Holy of Holies called “Jachin” and “Boaz”. For further information on Solomon’s temple see: King, Phillip J and Lawrence E. Stager. Life in biblical Israel. Westminster John Knox Press, London: 2001, Pgs.330-338.
[40] King, Phillip J and Lawrence E. Stager. Life in biblical Israel. Westminster John Knox Press, London: 2001, Pgs. 86-87.
[41] Listed this way in the Peshitta 19 times according to Day Pg. 397
